10.2 Unit 4

Unit IV: Global Trends in English Language Education

Globalisation, which is the tendency to world-wide convergence in education and other sectors(Held et al., 1999), is changing the environment in which English is learned as a foreign language (EFL) or second language (ESL). First, economic and cultural globalisation includes the globalisation of language, and in particular the spreading role of English as a universal global lingua franca (Crystal, 2003):

It is English that stands at the very centre of the global language system. It has become the lingua franca par excellence and continues to entrench this dominance in a self reinforcing process. It has become the central language of communication in business, politics, administration, science and academia, as well as being the dominant language of globalised advertising and popular culture. (Held et al., 1999)

At the same time the balance of emphasis in the use of English as a common cross-border language has shifted, from a primary focus on written communication to continued written communication plus a growing emphasis on oral communication. Linguistic globalisation, which is driven by more and closer cross-border ties in business, education and other sectors, becomes manifest in intensified communication and travel. Increased spoken voice interactions, and English language exposure in media, have placed a growing importance on listening and speaking skills. When people need English competence for their practical life – and  in nearly all  professional and business domains, in every nation, English is more and more necessary – they often need oral skills. This is especially the case if they are working in sectors involving international dealings or actually crossing national borders themselves.

The focus in language education in the twenty-first century is no longer on grammar, memorization and learning from rote, but rather using language and cultural knowledge as a means to communicate and connect to others around the globe. Geographical and physical boundaries are being transcended by technology as students learn to reach out to the world around them, using their language and cultural skills to facilitate the connections they are eager to make.

q  Exercises and pedagogic practices in countries where English is treated as L1

There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have fallen into relative obscurity and others are widely used; still others have a small following, but offer useful insights.

There are three principal views:

Ø  The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code meaning (e.g. grammar).

Ø  The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a certain function, such as requesting something.

Ø  The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and maintenance of social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges. This view has been fairly dominant since the 1980s

·         Communicative language teaching (CLT), also known as the Communicative Approach, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Despite a number of criticisms,  it continues to be popular, particularly in Europe, where constructivist views on language learning and education in general dominate academic discourse. Although the 'Communicative Language Teaching' is not so much a method on its own as it is an approach.

·         In recent years, task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based instruction (TBI), has grown steadily in popularity. TBLL is a further refinement of the CLT approach, emphasizing the successful completion of tasks as both the organizing feature and the basis for assessment of language instruction.

·         Language immersion in school contexts delivers academic content through the medium of a foreign language, providing support for L2 learning and first language maintenance. There are three main types of immersion education programs in the United States: foreign language immersion, dual immersion, and indigenous immersion.

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Foreign language immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for students whose home language is English. In the early immersion model, for all or part of the school day elementary school children receive their content (academic) instruction through the medium of another language: Spanish, French, German, Chinese, Japanese, etc. In early total immersion models, children receive all the regular kindergarten and first grade content through the medium of the immersion language; English reading is introduced later, often in the second grade. Most content (math, science, social studies, art, music) continues to be taught through the immersion language. In early partial immersion models, part of the school day (usually 50%) delivers content through the immersion language, and part delivers it through English.

Dual immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for students whose home language is English as well as for students whose home language is the immersion language (usually Spanish). The goal is bilingual students with mastery of both English and the immersion language. As in partial foreign language immersion academic content is delivered through the medium of the immersion language for part of the school day, and through English the rest of the school day.

Indigenous immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for American Indian communities desiring to maintain the use of the native language by delivering elementary school content through the medium of that language. Hawaiian Immersion programs are the largest and most successful in this category.

q  Exercises and pedagogic practices in Asian countries as ESL

For good or ill, the dominance of English as the world’s preferred second or foreign language has been increasing in recent years. One key reason for its inclusion in the school curriculum of Asian countries is the recognition that it can contribute to students’ personal, linguistic, social, and cultural development. English can help prepare them for their future careers and provide them with access to

information, especially concerning science and technology, which matters greatly to Asian countries seeking modernization and economic growth. English language teaching is thus seen to be instrumental in preparing younger generations for life in the present-day global village. Put simply, English teaching can serve individual, national, and international needs and desires.

While a healthy attitude toward English as an instrument for scientific and technological advancement and economic growth has emerged in Asia, English teaching in Asian countries remains far from satisfactory. This has many causes, the most important of which is inadequacies in teaching methodology which is grammar-based, textbook-focused, and examination-centered. Grammar-based language teaching is no longer sufficient. English language teaching in Asia needs to redefine its objectives, placing greater emphasis on the cultivation of practical communication abilities as well as intellectual growth. This requires innovation in teaching practice. Unfortunately, innovative initiatives must struggle against tradition, cynicism, and claims of cultural differences.

Traditional EFL pedagogies in East and Southeast Asian nations are not fully adequate to meet the need for an expanded emphasis on oral communications. These traditional pedagogies take a scholastic approach in that they tend to treat English as if it is outside the national or local linguistic environment. Thus they focus almost exclusively on learning to read English-language documents, and to prepare English language essays and letters, with little attention to the skills of conversation in English, let alone the ultimate communicative goal of native speaker-level proficiency. Teachers who were themselves schooled in a scholastic approach to the language, and focused on grammar and correct usage with little attention to oral communication, normally feel most comfortable in reproducing this same approach with their own students. Thus in learning English at school, the main pedagogical medium was reading and writing, rather than conversation.

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The main pedagogical style was didactic, in which students were positioned as largely passive learners. In their interviews, the students made frequent references to all three of these aspects, which interacted in the practices of didactic teacher-centred classrooms, and had become combined in their recollections of school.

However, the scholastic approach has become obsolete because of the growing role of English both inside every local environment, and at the borders between nations. The profound need for listening and speaking skills cannot be avoided. Strategically it is essential that EFL pedagogies in Asian nations move beyond the ‘scholastic’ tradition. The communicative approach to language teaching takes up this strategic imperative (Savignon, 1993, 1997).

Also in the 1960s, behaviourism, then the dominant learning theory, was being replaced by cognitivism (Richards & Rodgers 1986). According to the cognitivist view of learning, language learners were seen as actively constructing knowledge using whatever mental faculty they had available. It was the learners’ responsibility to discover the rules that allowed people to use the language creatively. Later developments which saw learners not only as cognitive beings, but also as affective and social beings, as well as strategy users (Larsen-Freeman 1998) paved the way for a view of learning which acknowledged the key roles that learners play in the learning process. This view of learning has been termed learner-centredness (Nunan 1988; Tudor 1996). As a consequence of this, learner-centred methodologies, which take into account learners’  needs, goals, interests, learning styles and strategies, are common features in many of today’s ELT classrooms.

 Central to the notion of learner-centredness is the idea that one of the most important goals of learning is to help students become autonomous learners(Dickinson 1992) –  learners who can take charge of their own learning regardless of the learning context, e.g., in a teacher-fronted classroom, in a group activity, or reading a book alone under a tree. One way to

develop learner autonomy is through instructional procedures which allow learners to engage in conscious planning, monitoring, and evaluation of their own learning. The bulk of research in the area of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategy training is replete with examples of how to help students become independent learners (see, for example, Cohen & Weaver1998; Hall & Beggs 1998; Wenden 1997).

In the learner-centred classroom, language teachers assume radically different roles. They are seen as more of language facilitators, counsellors and collaborators rather than as lesson conductors or knowledge transmitters. Assuming these new roles requires that teachers not view learners as empty vessels ready to be filled with buckets of knowledge. They should instead invite learners to actively construct and reconstruct knowledge. Thus, the major focus of instruction in the classroom is directed towards the learners themselves, not the lessons, the texts or the syllabus. In short, teachers are moving away from teaching lessons to teaching learners(Freeman in press).

Parallel developments in the area of second language assessment have also been documented. Authentic forms of assessment, such as portfolios, interviews, journals, and self/peer-assessment have become increasingly common in ESL classrooms (Penaflorida 1998).

q  Literary Translation as an Exercise

The Aim of a Good  Translation

Readers of literary fiction have high expectations. They demand a book be rich, dense and multidimensional, capable of weaving magic and changing something, no matter how small, about the way they perceive themselves. They also want to be entertained, but on an intelligent level. An author who can create such fiction must have insight, a mastery of language, a compelling sense of rhythm, idiom and nuance, and the ability to transform inspiration into a stunning and transcendent work of art.

When literary works are translated, the translator’s job is to recreate this work of art

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sensitively and seamlessly in such a way that it is true to the original, as well as being equally enchanting, poetic and perceptive. Grace, beauty, colour and flavour must be captured, and the resulting work must also be capable of being understood by its new audience, and make sense on every level. A translation should have the same virtues as the original, and inspire the same response in its readers. It must reflect cultural differences, while drawing parallels that make it accessible, and it must achieve a fine balance between the literal and the suggestive, the story and its melody. It should be read by readers in its new language with the same enthusiasm and understanding as it was in the old.

And so the role of a translator is many-faceted. He or she must hear the music of the original, and replay it for a new audience; a good translation sings, and displays a rhythm that not only reflects the original text’s origin but also beats to a new drum. A translator is both reader and writer; a translation is undoubtedly one person’s subjective reading of the source text, and, inevitably, it is reflected through that translator’s subjectivity. No two translators, like no two readers, are the same. Words have different resonances and connotations for everyone, and when a translator works, he or she dredges up expressions, interpretations, vocabulary and insight from a host of subconscious pools of language and experience.

In the words of one translator, ‘Literary translation involves making endless choices, weighing up whether to privilege meaning over music, rhythm over rules of grammar, spirit rather than letter of text, in order to give a translation its distinctive voice, while conveying the many layers of the original in a way that preserves the author’s intentions.’

The process through which a foreign language text is translated into English can represent a minefield of potential dangers, all of which could hamper the eventual success of the book, and even affect the viability of continuing to publish future titles in translation. And yet, success is not only possible but also achievable, by taking steps to ensure that best practice is employed at every stage.

The translation of literary fiction demands much more than knowledge of two or more languages. An ability to convert words literally from one language to another is the most basic skill required by any translator; but those who translate literary fiction require something beyond this—something much more creative, involving an instinctive understanding of the way that words and phrases can work together to best effect, in order to reveal both the story and the subtle nuances that create its context and apparent intent.

Role of a translator

A good translator will:

§  Bring creative energy and imagination to the work, without losing the author’s style, message or unique flavour.

§  Think carefully about substitutions or changes, and discuss major changes with the acquiring editor.

§  Take heed of an editor’s fresh approach to the text, and re- member that he or she will be seeing it with new eyes, and judging it as English prose.

§  Strike a fine balance between making the book accessible to new readers, while still maintaining its essential ‘foreignness’ and differences.

§  Remember that not all books are perfect, and that even tiny tweaks (made in conjunction with an editor) can make a good book brilliant.

§  Keep careful notes of changes and decisions made in the process of translating.

§  Take careful consideration of humour, puns, jokes and liter- ary allusions, names of places and characters, as well as cul- tural references and ideology.

§  Correctly translate idiomatic expressions, which lend colour and flavour.

§  Consider and represent the author’s culture, without turning it into a cultural treatise.

§  Carefully recreate the nuances of the original language.

Translators’ networks

The network of good translators is still relatively small, but it is vibrant and important. We have already seen how successful a collaborative translation can be, and more and more translators are choosing to work together to create the best

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possible books. It’s good practice to encourage networks, and everyone benefits. The Translators’ Association, a subsidiary of the Society of Authors (www.societyofauthors.org) is a good place to start making new contacts, and the British Centre for Literary Translation also runs an online discussion board (www.literarytranslation.com).

How to Translate Literary Works?

Literary translation is an art involving the transposing and interpreting of creative works such as novels, short prose, poetry, drama, comic strips, and film scripts from one language and culture into another. It can also involve intellectual and academic works like psychology publications, philosophy and physics papers, art and literary criticism, and works of classical and ancient literature. Without literary translation, human thought and art would be devoid of the souls of great minds and books, spanning The Bible to Don Quixote to Freud and Einstein to Naguib Mahfouz and Orhan Pamuk. If translating literature and academia interests you, learning how to translate can be incredibly rewarding.

ü  Become an passionate and intimate reader in each of your languages. Translating creative works requires the ability to read between the lines. You have to love reading in the genre(s) you're translating and be both intimate with the writer and the nuances of language, culture, thought, and message.

-          If, for instance, you translate prose poems from Dutch into English, you have to read as many published (and unpublished) prose poems as possible, in Dutch and in English. This will help you to grasp the styles, the subtleties, the contexts, and soul of prose poetry in order to deconstruct the Dutch and reconstruct the English.

-          Remember to keep on top of your languages. Language is a fluid entity that constantly changes and evolves. Dialects change, semantics change, new words are coined, old words die and are reborn.

ü  Master your writing skills in your mother tongue. Most literary translators, with very few exceptions, translate exclusively into their mother tongue, the language within best they express themselves and are most at home in.

To translate a book, you have to write a book; to translate a play, you need to know how to write a play. The only way you can do this is write as much as possible in your language and continuously hone that skill. Most published translators are also published writers.

ü  Get an education. Academic institutions worldwide are one of the strongest sources and supporters of literary and academic translation. Consider getting at least one degree in comparative literature, linguistics, languages, or translation to give you a head start. Literary translation specifically is often offered through creative writing programs. Receiving academic training will also give you access to literary lectures, mentor ships with professors who translate, and libraries with well-established and worldly collections.

-          If academia is out of your league, you can teach yourself through books. Check out your local book shops and libraries on what is published on the subject and read, read, read.

ü  Research the writer and work you are translating. A writer's work is a piece of him/herself. In order to interpret what you're reading, you have to know everything about the person behind the words. Ask yourself: When and where was the work written? Where was the writer from? What surrounded the writer at the time the work was written? Does the work draw references from other literary pieces? What else has the writer written? And so forth.

ü  Know the risks behind what you're translating. The translation of a particular work can cost both the writer and translator their lives depending on the statement of the work. The translation of books has sparked revolutions and wars. Know your audience.

ü  Remember that no translation is perfect. The minute you begin to render your first sentence, the original is already lost in translation. It is your job not to find an equivalent but rather reconstruct the original as though it was written in the target language. Cultural concepts, shades of colour, shades of meaning, and even history can and will be lost. Don't be

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afraid of that but instead embrace it. You can always use footnotes / end notes if necessary. Who is your audience?

-          Proofread the translated finished parts one by one before the general read and review at the end. You might find a better word or an expression in the same language that gets the exact meaning of the other. Do not over process, but check to see where can you install your enhancements.

ü  Find a publisher. Literary translations are largely contracted through publishing houses. Approach them, research them, provide writing/translation samples, and negotiate.

-          Some countries offer grants through federal arts/culture councils allocated specifically for translating literary works. Check out what's available to you and weigh your options.

ü  Join a professional translation organization. Whether you live in Canada, Chile, Cameroon, or China, there are professional organizations for translators as well as organizations for literary translation. Joining an organization is important for your professionalism, it enables you to network, and it opens your doors to professional training opportunities and translation prizes.

ü  Practice constantly. Find yourself a comfortable place and translate for at least fifteen minutes a day. You can only get better by working hard and maintaining a regular schedule. After a while, you will be amazed at how much work you have accumulated.

q  Teaching of translation as an Exercise

Aims and use

Translation as an exercise occupies an important place in language learning. The occasional use of mother-tongue is different from following the translation method of teaching. Translation method is considered as wasteful and out of date. Distinction has to be made between the use of the mother-tongue as a teaching technique and translation as a skill.

Translation is a complex skill. It involves high level understanding and command of two

languages. Translation is helpful in teaching word-order, idioms and grammatical constructions. It can be used to test the comprehension of the pupils or to test their vocabulary. It helps in learning many current English uses. Translation is an art and it is aimed to render the sense of the language into another.         

Stages at which translation is taught

The value of translation at the early stage is an exercise in comprehension. But the teacher should not ask pupils to translate all sentences or paragraphs into the mother-tongue. Oral translation should be stressed in this stage. At the middle and high school stages, oral translation should always precede written translation and students’ translation should be compared with original pieces. At the middle stage, different kinds of sentences, involving the use of different pronouns and tenses should be set for translation into English. At the high school stage, simple stories and continuous passages should be set for translation. Translation from mother-tongue into English is an exercise in controlled composition. Therefore it should not be attempted during the early stage of teaching English.

Grading of Translation Exercises

There is need to grade properly the translation exercises. Translation should be idiomatic and not literal. The improperly selected and ungraded exercises may encourage literal translation. A practicing exercise in translation should have sentences of one pattern. Only then, it can provide ample practice in translation. When translation is introduced in the fourth year of teaching English, we should start it with properly controlled patterns. In the first stage of teaching, no new structural or vocabulary item , which the learner has not already mastered, should be introduced. The sentences should be properly graded. Such properly controlled translation pattern practice is of great value in fixing them permanently in their minds. The passage set for translation should be in accordance with the pupils’ vocabulary and their knowledge of grammar.

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Translation from English into the mother-tongue is easier, safer and of more practical value than the translation from the mother-tongue into English. The pupil is more familiar with the idioms and structures of his mother-tongue. He is not likely to commit many mistakes as he does in English. It is of more practical value as we can translate standard books in humanities and sciences from English into one’s own mother-tongue.

Translation as a language learning tool

Translation has not always enjoyed a good press. Indeed, at the height of what we can call the "communicative" period, it was actively discouraged by many practitioners and regarded as a hindrance to second language fluency rather than an aid to language learning. In the brave new world of the Communicative Approach, translation (and the use of the mother tongue in general) came to be regarded as a relic of the past, a symbol of the bad old days of Grammar Translation, an echo of those long forgotten secondary school lessons when paragraphs of English prose were translated into Latin for no apparent purpose other than as an intellectual exercise.

Such a view, however, takes no account of individual learning styles. Some learners appear to need to be able to relate lexis and structures in the target language to equivalents in their mother tongue. This also gives them the opportunity to compare similarities and contrast differences. Put simply, they need the reassurance of their mother tongue in order to make sense of the way the target language operates. In the case of teachers, an ability to translate into the mother tongue of the learners can offer a convenient and efficient way out of a tricky situation – why bother to spend ten minutes trying to explain the concept behind a particular utterance when a simple translation can achieve the same goal in seconds? For example, it is quite difficult to get across the meaning of useful, everyday expressions such as "As far as …. is concerned, …" or "On the other hand …. ". Learning target language equivalents to key phrases like these in the mother tongue can be an extremely effective way to build up a good

working vocabulary. Translation can also be extremely creative. It is not only the translation of words from one language to another but the translation of ideas, concepts and images.

Some of the resistance to translation amongst certain teachers might stem from the kind of exercise they were required to do when language learners themselves. Dull, overlong, uncommunicative texts that were difficult to translate into the target language did little for motivation. But why should translation involve whole texts? Surely it is more relevant (and practical) to start with short, communicative pieces of language. When teaching grammatical structures, it can be very useful to check with your learners that they have fully grasped the concept of the language taught by asking them to translate into their mother tongue. As a checking stage, this could usefully come at the end of the lesson. The structure used in "If I had worked harder, I would have passed the exam", for example, is relatively complex and a quick translation check can avoid misunderstandings.

An illuminating exercise is to divide your class into two groups, give each group a short text (3-4 sentences) to translate into the target language. Then get the groups to exchange papers and ask them to translate the other group’s translation back into the mother tongue. The results, when compared, can be extremely interesting and often amusing!

Finally, in case any language teachers are worried that they might be replaced by computers, here is a translation of a well-known English proverb, translated into German and then back into English by a computer programme: "If the away cat, the mice plays".

* When the cat’s away the mice will play

q  Journal Clubs

What is a Journal Club?

—  A group of individuals that meet to discuss and critique research that appears in professional journals.

—  An educational meeting in which a group of individuals read, evaluate and discuss current articles from the biomedical literature

—  A collective forum to provide a venue to keep up with the literature

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—   One of the most effective means by which students and professionals keep up with literature in education.

—   Evidence based practice in action

—  Critically appraised information with     commentary and discussion for applicability and relevance.

It is believed that Sir William Osler established the first formal journal club at McGill University in Montreal in 1875, though Osler himself might have been aware of similar gatherings that were taking place elsewhere.  The purpose of Osler's early journal club was 'for the purchase and distribution of periodicals to which he could ill afford to subscribe.

Successful Journal Clubs include:

—  A well constructed academic question

—  Searching for evidence

—  A critical appraisal

—  Commentary and discussion

Purpose & Goals of Review/Critique and discussion of studies and articles in Journals

1.      Generally the purpose is to generate questions & disseminate knowledge

2.      Potential goals: Improve critical literature appraisal skills, to discuss controversies, to improve educational practice, to generate ideas for future research

The overall goals of a research critique are to formulate a general evaluation of the merits of a study and to evaluate its applicability to educational practice.

How to review & discuss a journal article?

1.      Get to know the article you are reviewing. Look at the title, the table of contents, the abstract and the introduction. These should give you some idea of the central focus and the coverage of the article and the author's reasons for writing the article. Skim quickly through the whole article, running your eye over opening sentences of paragraphs and glancing at any tables, illustrations or other graphic materials. Read more closely the first section, which should tell you the main issues to be discussed and indicate the theoretical or conceptual framework within which the author proposes to work. Read closely the final section, which should cover the author's conclusions and summarise the main reasons why these conclusions have been reached. Now that you are familiar with the text, read the whole text thoroughly to develop a basis on which to critically review it.

2.      Decide which aspects of the article you wish to discuss in detail in your review: the theoretical approach? the content or case studies? the selection and interpretation of evidence? the range of coverage? the style of presentation? Usually you will discuss the main issues which the author has specifically examined. Sometimes you may choose a particular issue because it has importance for you and the course you are studying, even if it is not the main issue for the author.

3.      Now, on the basis of your overall knowledge of the article and your decision about which issues you will discuss, read in closer detail the sections which are relevant to these issues. Make notes of the main points and key quotations.

If necessary, read other articles or books which are relevant to your topic, possibly to provide supporting evidence or alternative theoretical models or interpretations of data.

You may also want to glance at other reviews of the article in recent academic journals in order to get a feel for the way the article has been received within the discipline. However only use these reviews to support your own evaluation; don't merely copy or imitate them.

General targeted areas when critiquing a research article:

-          The introduction and background information: is the problem statement/introduction clearly described. Is it relevant to the educational topic selected, what are the objectives or aims of the research article?

-          The presentation of the article: Is the research question or hypothesis clear. In the literature review: is it informative, is it research-based and does it support the purpose/problem. Are the references current and from respected sources?

-          What study design and methods are used to collect the data? What is the sample size and

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characteristics, what statistics are utilized – are they appropriate?

-          What are the results & conclusions drawn by the author? Any implications for educational practice? Can the conclusions be generalized to various settings and populations of people?

A. Description of the Study

§  What was the purpose of the research?

§  Why is the research being conducted & why is it considered significant/important?

§  Were the research questions, objectives or hypothesis(es) clearly stated?

B. Literature Evaluation

§  Does the literature review seem thorough & recent (within the last 5 years)?

§  Does the content of the literature review relate directly to the research problem?

C. Conceptual Framework

§  Does the research use a theoretical or conceptual model?

§  Does the model guide the research and seem appropriate?

D. Sample

§  Who were the subjects?

§  Were the inclusion/exclusion criteria specified?

§  How representative is the sample?

§  Was there any selection bias evident in the sample selection?

E. Method and Design

§  Describe the study design – is it appropriate?

§  How was the research conducted (the study procedure itself) & data collected?

§  Were the subject’s rights protected?

F. Analysis

§  How were the data analyzed?

§  Do the selected statistical tests appear appropriate?

§  Were the results significant?

G. Results

§  What were the findings of the study?

§  Are the results presented in a clear and understandable way?

§  How did the authors interpret the results?

§  Were there any study limitations discussed?

H. Clinical Significance

§  What were the implications of this study to educational practice?

§  How does the study contribute to the body of knowledge?

§  Could the study be replicated?

§  What additional questions does the study raise?

Drafting and Writing a journal article review

Your journal article review is written for a reader (eg, your supervisor, lecturer, tutor or fellow student) who is knowledgeable in the discipline and is interested not just in the coverage and content of the article being reviewed, but also in your critical assessment of the ideas and argument that are being presented by the author.

The structure of your review should include:

·         an initial identification of the article (author, title of article, title of journal, year of publication, and other details that seem important, eg, it is originally a French edition, etc), and an indication of the major aspects of the article you will be discussing.

·         a brief summary of the range, contents and argument of the article. Occasionally you may summarise section by section, but in a short review (1,000-1,500 words) you usually pick up the main themes only. This section should not normally take up more than a third of the total review.

·         a critical discussion of 2-3 key issues raised in the article. This section is the core of your review. You need to make clear the author's own argument before you criticise and evaluate it. Also you must support your criticisms with evidence from the text or from other writings. You may also want to indicate gaps in the author's treatment of a topic; but it is seldom useful to criticise a writer for not doing something they never intended to do.

·         a final evaluation of the overall contribution that the article has made to your understanding of the topic (and maybe its importance to the development of knowledge in this particular area or discipline, setting it in the context of other writings in the field).